UNIT - I -2 (2)

Architecture of cyberspace 1. Network Infrastructure: At the core of cyberspace is the global network infrastructure, often referred to as the Internet. This infrastructure comprises a vast array of interconnected physical and virtual components, including routers, switches, data centers, and undersea cables. The Internet’s architecture is based on the Internet Protocol (IP), which allows data packets to be routed across the network. 2. Protocols: Various communication protocols define how data is transmitted and received in cyberspace. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are fundamental to the functioning of the Internet. Other protocols like HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer Protocol) govern specific types of data exchange. 3. Domain Name System (DNS): DNS is a crucial component of cyberspace that translates human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses. This system enables users to access websites and resources by name rather than needing to remember numeric IP addresses. 4. Data Centers: Data centers house the servers and storage infrastructure that store and deliver digital content and services. They play a pivotal role in hosting websites, applications, and cloud services. 5. Cyber security: The architecture of cyberspace includes various security measures to protect data, networks, and users. Firewalls, encryption, intrusion detection systems, and antivirus software are examples of cyber security components..

6. Web and Application Servers: These servers host websites, web applications, and other online services. They respond to user requests, retrieve data from databases, and deliver content to users' devices. 7. User Devices: These are the various devices through which users access cyberspace, including computers, smartphones, tablets, and IoT devices. Each device has its own hardware and software components that enable connectivity and interaction with Cyberspace. 8. Cloud Computing: Cloud services and platforms are an integral part of cyberspace architecture. Cloud providers offer scalable computing resources, storage, and services, allowing organizations to leverage the cloud for various purposes. 9. Social Media and Online Communities: Cyberspace also includes virtual communities and social media platforms that enable users to connect, share information, and collaborate online. These platforms have their own architectures and algorithms for content delivery and interaction. 10. Internet of Things (IoT): IoT devices are connected to cyberspace, enabling them to collect and exchange data with other devices and systems. They play a role in creating the "smart" aspect of cyberspace, connecting physical objects to the digital realm. 11. Regulations and Governance: Various laws and regulations govern cyberspace to ensure security, privacy, and fair use. Organizations like ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) oversee domain name management, while governments have jurisdiction over aspects like data protection and cybersecurity.  Cyberspace is a dynamic and evolving environment, with new technologies and architectures continually emerging. Its architecture is shaped by the needs of.

users, businesses, governments, and the broader digital ecosystem. As such, it remains a subject of ongoing development, discussion, and adaptation. Communication and web technology Communication and web technology are integral components of the modern digital landscape. They encompass a wide range of technologies and tools that facilitate communication and the dissemination of information over the internet. Some key aspects of communication and web technology are: 1. Internet The internet is the foundation of web technology. It is a global network of interconnected computers and servers that allows for the transfer of data and information across the world. 2. Web Browsers: Web browsers like Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge are software applications that enable users to access and interact with websites and web-based applications. 3. Websites: Websites are collections of web pages that are hosted on web servers and can be accessed through a web browser. They are created using various web technologies such as HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. 4. Web Development: Web development involves designing, creating, and maintaining websites. Web developers use various programming languages and frameworks to build web applications and sites. 5. Web Standards and Protocols: Various standards and protocols govern web technology, including HTTP/HTTPS (for data transfer), HTML5, CSS3, and more. 6. Mobile Web: Mobile web technology focuses on optimizing websites and applications for mobile devices, ensuring a seamless user experience on smartphones and tablets..

Internet  The word Internet is derived from the word internetwork, or the connecting together two or more computer networks.  The Internet started in the 1960s as a way for government researchers to share information.  Computers in the '60s were large and immobile and in order to make use of information stored in any one computer, one had to either travel to the site of the computer or have magnetic computer tapes sent through the conventional postal system.  January 1, 1983 is considered the official birthday of the Internet. Prior to this, the various computer networks did not have a standard way to communicate with each other.  A new communications protocol was established called Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP). This allowed different kinds of computers on different networks to "talk" to each other. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)  TCP/IP is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the Internet.  TCP establishes the connections between sending and receiving computers, and makes sure that packets sent by one computer are received in the same sequence by the other, without any packets missing.  IP provides the Internet’s addressing scheme and is responsible for the actual delivery of the packets.  TCP/IP is divided into four separate layers, with each layer handling a different aspect of the communication problem..

World Wide Web (WWW)  The World Wide Web was invented by a British scientist, Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.  World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web pages stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the internet.  These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the content of these sites from any part of the world over the internet using their devices such as computers, laptops, cell phones, etc.  The WWW, along with the internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media to your device.  The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in HTML and connected by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP. Advent of internet  The Internet started off with research into what was then known as packet switching as early as the 1960s.  ARPANET is considered the first known group of interconnected computers aka the internet. This system was used to transfer confidential data between the Military.  This data-sharing technology was then opened to educational institutes in the United States to allow them to access to government’s supercomputer, first at 56 kbit/s, then at 1.5 Mbit/s, and then at 45 Mbit/s.  Internet service providers began to arise in the late 1980s and the internet was fully commercialized in the US by 1995..

 The history of the Internet can be segmented into three phases 1. Innovation Phase 2. Institutionalization Phase 3. Commercialization Phase Innovation Phase (1961 to 1974)  The fundamental building blocks of the Internet—packet-switching hardware, a communications protocol called TCP/ IP, and client/server computing were Conceptualized and then implemented in actual hardware and software Institutionalization Phase (1975 to 1995)  large institutions such as the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) provided funding and legitimization for the fledging Internet. Commercialization Phase (1995 to the present)  The U.S. government encouraged private corporations to take over and expand the Internet backbone as well as local service beyond military installations and college Campuses to the rest of the population around the world..