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NAME :- ANSHITA VIRDI REGISTRATION NO. :- J-20-BIOTECH-262 COURSE TITLE :- PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF                            HORTICULTURE CROPS         COURSE NO. :- FRTS-121 COURSE INSTRUCTOR :- Dr. PRASHANT BAKSHI

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Scientific Classification Overview Climatic Condition Soil Condition Varieties Seed Rate, Spacing and Sowing Time Planting Fertilization Intercultural Operations Irrigation Harvesting Pest and Control Storage Composition Uses

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KINGDOM :-  Plantae PHYLUM :- Angiosperms CLASS :- Monocots ORDER :-  Asparagales FAMILY :-  Amaryllidaceae GENUS :-  Allium SPECIES :-  S.cepa BINOMIAL NAME :-  Allium   cepa

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The onion , also known as the bulb onion or common onion , is a vegetable that is the most widely cultivated species of the genus  Allium . The shallot is a botanical variety of the  onion .  Its close relatives include the garlic, scallion, leek, chive and Chinese onion. Some varieties of  A.  cepa , such as shallots and potato onions, produce multiple bulbs. The onion plant has been grown and selectively bred in cultivation for at least 7,000 years. It is a biennial plant, but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm . The leaves are yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side. The base of each leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of the basal plate of a bulb. From the underside of the plate, a bundle of fibrous roots extends for a short way into the soil. As the onion matures, food reserves begin to accumulate in the leaf bases and the bulb of the onion swells. India is the second largest onion growing country in the world. Indian onions  are famous for their pungency and are available round the year. Indian onions has two crop cycles, first harvesting starts in November to January and the second harvesting from January to May. The onion is a hardy cool-season biennial but usually grown as annual crop. The onion has narrow, hollow leaves and a base which enlarges to form a bulb. The bulb can be white, yellow, or red and require 80 to 150 days to reach harvest. The major Onion producing states are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,  Odisha , Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand and  Telangana  in the country. In 2019, world production of onions and shallots (as green produce) was 4.5 million  tonnes , led by China with 22% of the world total, and Japan, Mali, and South Korea as secondary producers.

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Bulbing  onions are day-length sensitive. Most traditional European onions are referred to as "long-day" onions, producing bulbs only after 14 hours or more of daylight occurs. Southern European and North African varieties are often known as "intermediate-day" types, requiring only 12–13 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation. "Short-day" onions, which have been developed in more recent times, are planted in mild-winter areas in the autumn and form bulbs in the early spring, and require only 11–12 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation.  Onions are a cool-weather crop  .  Hot temperatures or other stressful conditions cause them to "bolt", meaning that a flower stem begins to grow. Onion is a temperate crop but can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions such as temperate, tropical and subtropical climate. The best performance can be obtained in a mild weather without the extremes of cold and heat and excessive rainfall. However, onion plant is hardy and in the young stage can withstand freezing temperature also.  In India, short-day onion is grown in the plains and requires 10-12 hours day length. The long-day onion is grown in hills requiring 13-14 hours day length.  For vegetative growth, lower temperature combined with short photoperiod is required whereas relatively higher temperature along with longer photoperiod is required for bulb development and maturity.  The optimum temperature for vegetative phase and bulb development is 13-24˚C and 16-25˚C, respectively. It requires about 70% relative humidity for good growth.  It can grow well in places where the average annual rainfall is 650-750 mm with good distribution during the monsoon period. Areas with low (< 650 mm) or heavy rainfall (>750 mm) are not particularly suitable for rain-fed crop.

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Onion can be grown in all types of soils such as sandy loam, clay loam, silt loam and heavy soils. However, the best soil for successful onion cultivation is deep, friable loam and alluvial soils with good drainage, moisture holding capacity and sufficient organic matter.  In heavy soils, the bulbs produced may be deformed. Onion crop can be grown successfully on heavy soil with application of organic manure prior to planting and preparation of the field for onion cultivation should be very good.  The optimum pH range, regardless of soil type, is 6.0 - 7.5, but onion can also be grown in mild alkaline soils. Onion crop is more sensitive to highly acidic, alkali and saline soils and water logging condition.  Onions do not thrive in soils having pH below 6.0 because of trace element deficiencies, or occasionally, Al or  Mn  toxicity.

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Multiplier Onion   - Co­ 1, Co­ 2, MDU­ 1,  Agrifound  Red Small Common Onion   -  Agrifound  Rose,  Arka   Bindu White Onion  -  Bhima  Shubra,  Bhima   Shweta ,  Bhima   Safed ,  Pusa  White Round,  Arka   Yojith ,  Pusa  White Flat, Udaipur ­102,  Phule   Safed , N­257­9­1,  Agrifound  White. Spanish Brown  -  Bhima  Light Red,  Bhima   Kiran ,  Phule   Suvarna ,  Arka   Niketan ,  Arka   Kirthiman Red onion  -  Bhima  Super,  Bhima  Red,  Bhima  Raj,  Bhima  Dark Red,  Bhima   Shakti , Punjab Selection,  Pusa  Red, N­2­-4­-1,  Pusa   Madhavi ,  Arka   Kalyan ,  Arka   Lalima .

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Seed rate  :- 8 to 10 kg/ha Sowing time  :-    In plains – October to November    In hills – March to June  Spacing  :-     The land is ploughed to a fine tilth and form ridges at 45cm spacing. The bulbs are sown on both sides of the ridges at 10cm apart.

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Land preparation  :-  Prior to transplanting, field should be ploughed and disked properly to eliminate debris and soil clods. Organic manures equivalent to 75 kg N/ha (approximately FYM 15 t/ha or poultry manure 7.5 t/ha or  vermicompost  7.5 t/ha) should be incorporated at the time of last  ploughing  and beds with appropriate size should be prepared after leveling. Mostly, flat beds of the size 1.5-2.0 m width and 4-6 m length is formed. However, flat bed should be avoided to prevent water logging during  Kharif  or rainy season. Water logging  favours  Anthracnose disease which is most devastating during  Kharif  season. Broad bed furrows (BBF) of 15 cm height and 120 cm top width with 45 cm furrow are formed to achieve proper spacing and population density. It is suitable for drip and sprinkler irrigation as well. BBF is the best method for  Kharif  onion production because the excess water can be drained out through the furrow. This improves the aeration and helps in reducing the incidence of Anthracnose disease. Transplanting  :-  Proper care should be taken while selecting seedlings for transplanting. Over and under aged seedlings should be avoided for better establishment. At the time of transplanting, one third of the seedling top should be cut to get good establishment. The onion seedling should be transplanted after dipping roots in  carbendazim  solution (0.1%) for two hours to reduce the incidence of fungal diseases during the establishment. The optimum spacing is 15 cm between the rows and 10 cm between plants.

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TYPES N P2O5 K2O Kharif  onion (Yield potential – 25-30 t/ha)    75 kg 40 kg 40 kg Late  Kharif  and  Rabi  onion (Yield potential- 40-50 t/ha)   110 kg   40 kg 60 kg  Long day onion (Yield potential-100 t/ha)   180  kg   60    kg 70 kg

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Control of weeds at the initial growth stages is essential for getting high marketable bulb yield. Because of  labour  scarcity, chemical control of weeds along with cultural methods is inevitable. Application of  Oxyflurofen  @ 23.5% EC (1.5 -2.0 ml/L)/  Pendimethalin  @ 30% EC (3.5-4ml/L) before transplanting or at the time of transplanting followed by one hand weeding at 40-60 days after transplanting is recommended for efficient weed control. Rotation and Mixed Cropping Onion crop should follow the vegetable crops such as cauliflower, tomato and potato, which require large quantities of organic manures. As a winter crop, it follows cereals, groundnut and cowpea while as a summer crop it follows paddy. When cultivated as monsoon or late monsoon crop, coriander,  french  bean, sorghum, pearl millet,  chillies , and groundnut are planted after harvesting onion. During the initial five months after planting sugarcane, onion is grown as an inter-crop.

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Irrigation requirement of onion depends upon the season, soil type, method of irrigation and age of the crop. In general, onion needs irrigation at the time of transplanting, three days after transplanting and subsequently at   7-10 days interval depending upon the soil moisture. In general,  Kharif  crop needs 5-8 irrigations, the late  Kharif  crop requires 10-12 and Rabi crop needs 12-15 irrigations. Onion being a shallow rooted crop, needs frequent light irrigation to maintain optimum soil moisture for proper growth and bulb development. Irrigation needs to be stopped when the crop attains maturity (10-15 days before harvest) and the top starts falling which helps in reducing the rotting during storage. Excess irrigation is always harmful and dry spell followed by irrigation will result in the splitting of the outer scales and also formation of bolters. Water loss with flood irrigation is too high due to conveyance, seepage and percolation losses. Modern irrigation techniques such as drip and micro sprinkler irrigation help in saving irrigation water and improve the marketable bulb yield significantly. In case of drip irrigation, seedlings need to be planted at a spacing of 10 x 15 cm in a broad bed furrow (BBF) of 15 cm height and 120 cm top width with 45 cm furrow. Each BBF should have two drip laterals at (16 mm size) 60 cm distance with inbuilt emitters. The distance between two inbuilt emitters should be around 30-50 cm and the discharge flow rate is 4 l/hr. In case of micro sprinkler, the distance between two laterals (20 mm) of micro sprinkler should be 6m with a discharge rate of 135 l/hr. The research outcome indicated that the drip irrigation at 100 % Pan Evaporation (PE) significantly improved the marketable bulb yield (15-25%) with higher per cent A grade bulbs, water saving of about 35-40% and  labour  saving of 25-30% as compared to flood irrigation.

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Onion is harvested depending upon the purpose for which the crop is planted. 0nion crop is ready for harvesting in five months for dry onion. However, for marketing as green onion, the crop becomes ready in three months after transplanting. When the bulbs developing from the leaf bases of onions are fully formed, the leafy green tops begin to yellow and eventually collapse at a point a little above the top of the bulb, leaving an upright short neck. When the tops "go down" in this way, the bulbs are ready for harvesting. Because all the onions in a crop do not mature at the same time, large-scale commercial growers harvest them when about half the tops have gone down. In  kharif  season, since tops do not fall, bulbs are harvested soon after the  colour  of leaves changes to slightly yellow and red pigmentation on bulbs develop. Best time to harvest  rabi  onion is one week after 50% tops have fallen over. Onions for sale as dried bulbs or for storage should be harvested progressively after tops have started falling over. Since onion bulbs are normally formed at the soil surface, it is sometimes possible in sandy soils to pull the mature bulbs by hand. Where conditions make hand pulling impossible, crop is harvested by loosening the bulbs with a fork or hoe before lifting them. The harvested crop is left in windrows in the field for a few days until the tops are dry. The windrows should be made so that the green tops cover the bulbs to protect them from sunburn. The leaves are cut leaving about 2-2.5 cm tops above the bulb after complete drying. This practice helps to increase the dry matter content. If tops are cut too close, the neck does not close well and provides entry for decay organisms. Early harvest results in sprouting of the bulbs and late harvest results in formation of secondary roots during storage. In  kharif  season, late harvesting results in doubles and bolting. Yield :-  Irrigated onion crop in  rabi  season gives an yield of 25-30 t/ha while under  rainfed  conditions it yields only about 0.7-1.0 t/ha. Onion raised as an intercrop in sugarcane and turmeric, in alleys of young fruit garden and banana garden, gives a yield of 5-9 t/ha. The small sized, pungent, local cluster type onion yields half as compared to the large sized varieties.

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Onion  thrips   • Use resistant/tolerant varieties. • Practice field sanitation. • Avoid successive planting of garlic or other preferred/alternate host such as cabbage, cotton, tomato, cucumber, melons, pumpkins, strawberries etc. • Use of sprinkler irrigation reduces  thrips  population. • Add a spreader or sticker (0.05-1.0%) for retention and spread of spray fluid on erect leaves of onion. • In seed crop,  thrips  should be controlled well before flowers open.  urface  irrigation. Onion maggot      • Avoid close spacing while planting • Follow crop rotation. • Field sanitation.       • Conserve predators such as ground beetle, rove beetles, spiders etc. by providing grassy refuge strips. Bulb mite       • Avoid planting successive onion or garlic crops. • Flood irrigation reduces mite levels in the soil.       • Avoid planting onion after  cole  crops, as decaying  cole  crops, especially cauliflower, may  harbour  very high bulb mite populations in the field. Eriophyid  mite       • Flood irrigation reduces mite level in the soil. • Avoid planting successive onion or garlic crops

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Onions are stored in a well-ventilated place with lot of aeration and sunlight. Onion bulbs are packed in perforated gunny bags and stalked in vertical column, one above the other. However, height of such vertical column should not exceed more than 5 feet and should have sufficient space all around and bottom.  In the home  , Cooking onions and sweet onions are better stored at room temperature, optimally in a single layer, in large mesh bags in a dry, cool, dark, well-ventilated location. In this environment, cooking onions have a shelf life of three to four weeks and sweet onions one to two weeks. Cooking onions will absorb odors from apples and pears. Also, they draw moisture from vegetables with which they are stored which may cause them to decay. Sweet onions have a greater water and sugar content than cooking onions. This makes them sweeter and milder tasting, but reduces their shelf life. Sweet onions can be stored refrigerated; they have a shelf life of around 1 month. Irrespective of type, any cut pieces of onion are best tightly wrapped, stored away from other produce, and used within two to three days. [42]

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Nutrients  :-  Most onion cultivars are about 89% water, 9% carbohydrates (including 4% sugar and 2% dietary  fibre ), 1% protein, and negligible fat (table). Onions contain low amounts of essential nutrients and have an energy value of 166 kJ (40 kilocalories) in a 100 g (3.5 oz) amount. Onions contribute  savoury   flavour  to dishes without contributing significant caloric content Eye irritation  :-  Freshly cut onions often cause a stinging sensation in the eyes of people nearby, and often uncontrollable tears. This is caused by the release of a volatile liquid,  syn - propanethial -S-oxide and its aerosol, which stimulates nerves in the eye. [  This gas is produced by a chain of reactions which serve as a  defence  mechanism: chopping an onion causes damage to cells which releases enzymes called  alliinases.These  break down amino acid,  sulfoxides  and generate  sulfenic  acids. A specific  sulfenic  acid, 1-propenesulfenic acid, is rapidly acted on by a second enzyme, the  lacrimatory  factor  synthase  (LFS), producing the  syn - propanethial -S- oxide.This  gas diffuses through the air and soon reaches the eyes, where it activates sensory neurons.  Lacrimal  glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant.

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Common onions are normally available in three  colour  varieties  :- Yellow or brown onions are sweeter and are the onions of choice for everyday use in European cuisine, with many cultivars bred specifically to demonstrate this sweetness. Yellow onions turn a rich, dark brown when  caramelised  and give French onion soup its sweet flavor. Red or purple onions are known for their sharp pungent flavor and are the onions of choice for everyday use in Asian cuisine. They are also used raw and in grilling. White onions are traditional in classic Mexican cuisine, and are milder in flavor; they have a golden  colour  when cooked and a particularly sweet  flavour  when sautéed. Culinary uses  :-  Onion powder is a seasoning widely used when the fresh ingredient is not available. It is made from finely ground, dehydrated onions, mainly the pungent varieties of bulb onions, and has a strong  odour . Being dehydrated, it has a long shelf life and is available in several varieties: yellow, red, and  white.Onions  are commonly chopped and used as an ingredient in various hearty warm dishes, and may also be used as a main ingredient in their own right, for example in French onion soup, creamed onions, and onion chutney. They are versatile and can be baked, boiled, braised, grilled, fried, roasted, sautéed, or eaten raw in  salads.Onions  pickled in vinegar are eaten as a snack around the world. Non-culinary uses  :-  Onions have particularly large cells that are readily observed under low magnification. Forming a single layer of cells, the bulb epidermis is easy to separate for educational, experimental, and breeding purposes. Onions are therefore commonly used in science education to teach the use of a microscope for observing cell  structure.Onion  skins can be boiled to make an orange-brown dye.

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PRODCUTION TECHNOLOGY OF ONION

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    Onions are stored in a well-ventilated place with lot of aeration and sunlight. Onion bulbs are packed in perforated gunny bags and stalked in vertical column, one above the other. However, height of such vertical column should not exceed more than 5 feet and should have sufficient space all around and bottom.  In the home  , Cooking onions and sweet onions are better stored at room temperature, optimally in a single layer, in large mesh bags in a dry, cool, dark, well-ventilated location. In this environment, cooking onions have a shelf life of three to four weeks and sweet onions one to two weeks. Cooking onions will absorb odors from apples and pears. Also, they draw moisture from vegetables with which they are stored which may cause them to decay. Sweet onions have a greater water and sugar content than cooking onions. This makes them sweeter and milder tasting, but reduces their shelf life. Sweet onions can be stored refrigerated; they have a shelf life of around 1 month. Irrespective of type, any cut pieces of onion are best tightly wrapped, stored away from other produce, and used within two to three days. [42]

PRODCUTION TECHNOLOGY OF ONION

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