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By Mona A Hussain Assistant Professor in Physiology FOM- PSU

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Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body, and explain their relationships. List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their  components. Briefly  explain the major function(s) of each system. List the functional characteristics necessary to maintain  life and the  survival needs of the  body.

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Physiology   is the study of how living organisms function. As applied to human beings, its scope is extremely broad.  At one  end of the spectrum, it includes the study of  individual molecules . At  the other end, it is  concerned with  complex processes that depend on the  integrated functions  of many organs  in the  body. Many areas of function are still only poorly understood.

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Levels of structural organization of human body

divisdl
cell
Specialized
cell types
Tissues
E pifieliial
Epithelial
Con nective—
Fertilized egg
Neuron

Organ
(kidney)
Ss sue
(Urinary system)
unit
(nephron)

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Muscles may be grouped according to: • Their location in relation to other body structures (anatomical) • Their histological (tissue) structure • The way their action is controlled

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A  neuron  is a cell of the nervous system that is  specialized to  initiate, integrate, and conduct electrical signals to  other cells , sometimes over long distances.  A  signal may initiate  new electrical  signals in other neurons, or it may stimulate a  gland cell  to secrete substances or a muscle cell  to contract. neurons provide a major means of controlling the activities  of other  cells.

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Epithelial  cells  are specialized for the selective secretion  and absorption  of ions and organic molecules, and for protection. These cells are characterized and named according to  their unique  shapes, including cuboidal (cube-shaped),  columnar  (elongated ), squamous (flattened), and ciliated.  Epithelial   tissue  (known as an  epithelium )   may be arranged in  single-cell-thick tissue , called a simple epithelium, or a thicker tissue  consisting of  numerous layers of cells, called a stratified epithelium.

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Connective-Tissue  Cells and  Connective Tissue

Connective-tissue  cells ,  as their name implies,  connect, and  support the structures of the body.  Some   connective-tissue  cells are found in the loose meshwork  of cells  and fibers underlying most epithelial layers; this is  called  loose  connective tissue .   Another type called  dense  connective tissue   includes the tough, rigid tissue that makes up  tendons and  ligaments.  Other  types of connective tissue include  bone, cartilage , and adipose (fat-storing) tissue .  Finally ,  blood  is  a type  of  fluid  connective tissue. This is because the cells in  the blood  have the same embryonic origin as other connective  tissue, and  because the blood connects the various organs  and tissues  of the body through the delivery of nutrients,  removal of  wastes, and transport of chemical signals from one part  of the  body to another.

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Organ:
BCRiy structure that different
tissues and carries out a sFcific function
Stomach
n
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue Muscle tissue
protection. secretion, structural sup port
absorption
Nervous tissue
communication,
ccn.rdination ,
control

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The  organ system, a collection of  organs that  together perform an overall function.  For  example,  the kidneys ; the urinary bladder; the  ureters  (the  tubes  leading from  the kidneys to the  bladder)  and the urethra,  (the tube leading  from the bladder to the  exterior)  constitute the  urinary system .

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TABLE 1.1
Systern
atory
ge Stive
I ntcgurncnt ary
Lyrnphatic
Repr o ductivc
Res pi rato ry
Uri n ary
Organ Systerns of the Body
Major Organs or Tissues
Heart, blood vessels, blood
Mouth, sal ivary glands, pharynx, esophagus,
stornach, srnall and large intestines, anus,
pancreas, liver. gallbladdcr
All glands or organs secreting pancreas,
tcstcs, ovaries, hypothalarnus, kidneys, pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, srnaII
intestine, liver, adipose tissue, heart, and pineal
gland; and endocrine cells in other organs
VVhitc blood and their organs Of production
Lyrnph Vessels, nodes
Cartilage, bone, tendons, joints,
rnusclc
Brain , spinal cord, peripheral ncrvcs and ganglia,
sc nsc orga
Male: pcnis, and associated ducts and
Fernale: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,
a ry glands
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
P rirnar•y Functions
Transport of blood throughout body
Digestion and absorption Of nutrients and water;
Of
Regulation and coordination Of rnany activities in the
body, including growth, n.ctabol isnm, reproduction, blood
pressure, Water and clcctrolytc balance, and others
against pathogens
Protection against i njury and dehydration; dcfcnsc against
pathogens; regulation Of body
Collection Of extracellular fluid for return to blood;
participation in dcfcnscs; absorption of fats
digestive systcrn
Support. protection, and rnovcrncnt of body; production
Of blood cells
Regulation and coordination Of rnany• activities in body;
detection of and rcsponsc to changes in the internal and
external environrncnts; states Of consciousness; learning;
others
Male: Production Of spcrrn; transfer of spcrrn to fcrnalc
Fcrnalc: Production Of eggs; provision of a nutritive
environrncnt for developing ctnbryo and fetus; nutrition
Of the infant
Exchange Of carbon dioxide and oxygen; regulation Of
hydrogen ion concentration in the body fluids
Regulation of plasr•na corn position through controlled
excretion of salts, w-atcr, and organic

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Necessary Life  Functions 1-  Maintaining  Boundaries

Every  living organism must  maintain its boundaries  so  that its  internal environment (its inside) remains distinct from  the external  environment surrounding it (its outside).  In single-celled organisms , the external boundary is a limiting  membrane that  encloses its contents and  lets-in  needed substances  while restricting  entry of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances. Similarly, all the cells of our body are surrounded by  a selectively  permeable membrane. Additionally, the body as a whole is enclosed and  protected by  the integumentary system, or  skin. This  system protects our internal organs from drying  out (a  fatal change), bacteria, and the damaging effects of  heat, sunlight , and an unbelievable number of chemicals in  the external  environment.

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Movement  includes the activities promoted by the  muscular system , such as propelling ourselves from one place to  another by  running or swimming, and manipulating the external  environment with  our  fingers.  Movement  also occurs  when substances  such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are  propelled through  internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive,  and urinary  systems, respectively.  On  the cellular level, the  muscle cell’s  ability to move by shortening is more precisely  called  contractility .

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Necessary Life Functions 3-  Responsiveness

Responsiveness , or  excitability , is the ability to sense  changes (which  serve as stimuli) in the environment and then  respond to  them.  For  example, if you cut your hand on broken  glass, a  withdrawal reflex occurs—you involuntarily pull your  hand away  from the painful stimulus (the broken glass). You  don’t have  to think about it—it just happens !, Because nerve cells are highly excitable and  communicate rapidly  with each other via electrical impulses, the nervous  system is  most involved with  responsiveness. However, all  body cells are excitable to some extent.

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Digestion  is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular system.

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Metabolism “ a state of change ”  is a  broad term  that includes all chemical reactions that occur  within body  cells.  It includes: 1-   breaking down substances into  their simpler  building blocks (more specifically, the process of  catabolism ), 2- synthesizing  more complex cellular structures  from simpler  substances ( anabolism ),  and 3-   using nutrients and  oxygen to  produce (via  cellular respiration ) ATP, the  energy-rich molecules  that power cellular activities.  Metabolism depends on  the digestive and respiratory systems to make nutrients  and oxygen  available to the blood and on the cardiovascular  system to  distribute them throughout the  body.  Metabolism  is regulated largely by  hormones secreted  by endocrine system  glands.

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Excretion  is the process of removing wastes, or  excreta  from  the body.  Several organ systems participate in excretion. For  example, the  digestive system rids the body of indigestible food  residues in  feces, and the urinary system disposes of  nitrogen-containing metabolic  wastes, such as  urea. Carbon dioxide , a by-product of cellular respiration, is carried  in  the blood to the lungs, where it leaves the body in exhaled  air.

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Reproduction  occurs at the cellular and the organismal level. In cellular reproduction, the original cell divides, producing  two identical  daughter cells that may then be used for body  growth  or repair.  Reproduction  of the human organism,  a whole  new person, is the major task of the reproductive system. When a sperm unites with an egg, a fertilized egg forms  and develops  into a baby within the mother’s body . It is under the hormonal control

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Growth  is an increase in size of a body part or the organism  as a  whole.  It  is usually accomplished by  increasing the number  of cells . However, individual cells also  increase in size  when  not dividing.

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Survival  needs ,  include  nutrients ( food ),   oxygen,  water,  appropriate  temperature and atmospheric pressure .

Introduction to Physiology

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