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Theoretical Perspectives on Youth Justice

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Strain Theory
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Subcultural Theory
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- (Haines and Case, 2008, pp.5-20)

“Nature versus Nurture” arguments have influenced Youth offending.   (Murphy, 2019) (Shaw and McKay, 1972).

The Chicago School of sociological research use cultural impacts on offending. (Case and Haines, 2009).

Direct links between a bored and disaffected youth and “entry level offending” such as graffiti.  Farnsworth (1998)

Studies have shown that giving youth an outlet for their pent-up frustrations such as sports facilities can have a marked impact on reducing offending.  Nichols (2010).

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Strain theory proposes that during life there are many “stressors” or “strains” that have influence on how a person develops.  These “Strains” can come in many forms from the mundane to the extreme and in some cases can lead to violent criminal behaviours   (Agnew, 2016). Not everyone who has certain strains in their lives go on to develop criminal intent, but we are all guided by the impacts that life has on us, (Beaver et al, 2014).   A persons most  formative developmental years are between the ages of 8 to 16, (Thaxton and Agnew ,2018). So, it can be argued that youth offending can start from an early age. It is during this time of development that a person goes through physical and mental changes and these can be traumatic for some youth.  Add to these stressors, a life that is less than happy and comfortable then the outcomes can lead to offending behaviors such as petty crime and drug taking through to major criminal activities. Further strains can come from the “Gang” culture that is pervasive in some of the more deprived inner-city estates and rural areas with high unemployment and few community / social amenities   (McKenzie ,2015).    The disaffected youth that they encourage to commit crimes with the promise of power, local respect, money, and the other trappings of a drug / crime lifestyle are constantly under pressure to  provide for their, for want of a better word “masters.” This pressure is an example of Strain Theory in action. The increasing use of youth to commit drug trafficking across county borders as the urban gang leaders theorize that a young adult is less likely to get caught as they do not fit the profiles of youth offending (NSPCC, 2020).     Intense pressure is placed on these younger adults, or in some cases children, to provide a service that places a great strain on them to be successful and earn a place at the table as it were. These stressors, or strains, are exemplars of Strain Theory in action (Agnew, 2016).

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3) General Strain Theory applications: Connections between youth homelessness and street crime

- Around 71.8%-78% of homeless youth between the ages of 18 and 24, were arrested. (Ferguson et al., 2011. In Snyder et al., 2016, pp.90-96)  -   60% served jail time.   (Yoder et al., 2014. In Snyder et al., 2016, pp.90-96) -   Of the general population 12.8% from this age group had been arrested.   (Howden & Meyer, 2011. In Snyder et al., 2016, pp.90-96)

- Homeless youth hold unaddressed needs which initiate costly outcomes. For the individuals themselves, but also society, regarding youth justice outcomes (Snyder et al., 2016, pp.90-96).

The expanse of homeless youth, span between tens of thousands to over one million (Pergamit et al., 2013. In Snyder et al., 2016, pp.90-96)

Agnew’s General Strain is especially relevant in understanding the factors surrounding the situation of homeless youth and street crime. The specific strain of Polyvictimisation, is significant to explaining these issues (Snyder et al., 2016, pp.90-96).

Polyvictimisation as a strain appeared to hold a strong impact upon offending.  Meaning, homeless youth are at very high risk of justice system involvement (Baron, 2004, pp.457-484).

The Polyvictimisation Strain acts as a contribution to offending behaviour, describes the exposure to varying forms of abuse, violence, and crime (Finkelhor, Ormrod and Turner, 2007a, pp.7-26).

The response to this trauma can cause individuals to develop a higher sensitivity to threat, which can contribute to increased aggression and hostility (Cuevas, Finkelhor, Turner and Ormrod, 2007, pp.1581-1602). Research suggests that victims of Polyvictimisation, through heightened levels of anxiety etc. hold more trauma symptoms. These are emotions which feed the offending behaviour. (Finkelhor, Ormrod and Turner, 2007a, pp.7-26). Strain was not created with the specific considerations of this area; it offers a theoretical frame. By applying general strain to the specific issues of homeless youth, it allows expansion of specific strains which impact people, relevant to situations , which may be left under considered (Snyder et al., 2016, pp.90-96).

Traumatic stress asserts that victimisation impacts youth as an ongoing event pattern (Finkelhor, Ormrod and Turner, 2007b, pp.149-166).

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4) A Critical analysis of Strain and General strain

The impact of blocked goals upon Strain is an underexamined area. In youth and juveniles, this is typically considered regarding if they achieve their occupational or educational goals. Research indicates that delinquency is not related to the achievement (or lack of) of occupational/ educational goals. However, data strongly indicates that the arrival of negative stimuli and loss of positive stimuli more likely contribute to crime (McLaughlin and Muncie, 2019, pp.527-529)

Amongst the varying strain theories, arguably Agnew’s General Strain holds the most solid complete, conceptual base. General Strain has developed a considerable quantity of empirical research and has been through wide scale testing (Froggio, 2007, pp. 383-418). Agnew himself calls for more study’s and research, of separate and specific types of strain to improve upon the theory, which are currently under considered. In response to criticisms, of the limited evidence base of strain, he recommends that alternative methods to surveying could improve results (Jang and Agnew, 2015, pp.495-500).   Agnew, stresses that General strain can explain more than simply individual crime differences. The opportunities to progress and develop upon General Strain accounting for cultural and societal differences, gives a platform for the theory to be an useful tool for understanding criminal (and non-criminal) behaviours in the future (Jang and Agnew, 2015, pp.495-500).

However, the research indicating the impact of strain on crime and criminal behaviour is limited. Strain theories cannot currently explain why some strains relate to crime and the reason why some don’t. Further, research exploring how crime is contributed to by strain, has produced mixed and varying results  (McLaughlin and Muncie, 2019, pp.527-529). With regards to General Strain specifically, the empirical evidence in which was collected has been under lacking analysis. So, it is widely known that General strain is supported with evidence, however not the consistency or value of it (Froggio, 2007, pp. 383-418). Also, General Strain was formulated in America, it is not certain if its explanations specifically refer to the United States, or if the concepts discussed also can explain deviance in external societies or in a global context (Froggio, 2007, pp. 383-418).

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It could be argued that Sub-cultural Theory is a natural progression from Strain Theory. There are many forms of a culture, or group of society, and there can be many Sub-Groups or Cultures within these groups. For example, in the United Kingdom there is a thriving motorbike culture and there is the Sub-Culture that is the Hell’s Angels groups. It should be noted here that not all Sub-Cultural groups are prone to Criminal behaviours, but a certain number can be (Downes, 2013). The link between Strain and Sub-Culture can be seen in the rise of the gang mindset who feel themselves forgotten by the greater society and feel disenfranchised by those that they see as having a certain unwanted control over their lives (Muggleton, 2005). Crimes such as car theft, mugging and violent knife crime are on the increase and have a direct correlation to the increase in drug taking amongst younger people (Bennett and Holloway, 2004). The subcultures can be many things, from cars that the groups drive to the music that they listen to. They make certain choices that alienates them, and they see the mainstream cultural norms, social constraints of their parents as being counterproductive. As there seems to be no way that their lot can be, or will be, improved without offending to make life easier (Palmer,2009).  Employment, or lack of, austerity measures that mean cutting of benefits, funds for community projects that would help a disaffected youth group to turn away from crime and offending are major actors which can form a culture of crime and offending (Pitt, 1999).  Within these cultures, subcultures can flourish, and youth tends to find comfort, togetherness, and validation within a peer group. These groups, or Sub Cultures, give more than just a sense of belonging but help forge friendships and alliances that make the negatives, such as offending, a worthwhile way of having a companionship with likeminded and similarly disaffected youth (Pitt, 1999).

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6)  Subculture applications: The British “Chav”

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Matza and Sykes, 1961 offered important critique of Subculture, in relation to over determinism from the theorists. Specifically, with reference to the sharp differentiation between the terms ‘normal’ and ‘deviant’. In Matza’s, ‘Delinquency and Drift’ and ‘Becoming Deviant’ (1964 and 1969), a criticism of positivism is offered, with regards to the point that the ‘non-delinquent’ could be effectively differentiated from the ‘delinquent’ (Brown, 2005, pp.31-222).  The concept of delinquency can be de-structured through its trivial nature and dependency on an incidental journey through a young person’s life. Youth occasionally drift in certain contexts into delinquency, under harmful conditions, however their actions are not characterised by adhering to delinquent values. Matza and other scholars’ challenges towards the idea of youth subcultures, allowed the academia to flourish, increasing analysis of the lives of young people, spotlighting the objectives and focus of Criminological research (Brown, 2005, pp.31-222). To fully understand the impact of Subcultures within the sphere of Youth Offending then criminologists must learn to understand the reasons that bring youth together and to commit certain offending patterns, (Brown, 2005), (Farrington,2007). Only by doing this can the offending rates be brought down and make areas of deprivation safer for the greater community. By doing this then the emergence of the “Criminal Subculture” will be made more difficult  (Brown, 2005) . Youth offending and the cultures, and subcultures that they bring forth, will always be an area that the authorities, the government, and criminologists need to address as without study then youth offending will rise (Brown, 2005).

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What do you think?... Which theoretical perspective best represents the issues of youth justice? A) Strain B) Subculture C) Neither of them (tell us why?) Please Pop your answer In the chat box…

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Adobe Stock, n.d.  Hand in handcuffs . [image] Available at: <https://stock.adobe.com/ee/images/hand-in-handcuffs/133985385> [Accessed 3 February 2021]. Agnew, R. (2016) “Building on the Foundation of General Strain Most likely to Lead to Crime and Delinquency”, T he Journal of Research into Crime and Delinquency , 38(4), pp. 319 – 361. Agnew, R. (2007) Strain Theory and Violent Behavior. In Flannery, D. J., Vaszonyi, A. T. and Waldman, I. D. (Eds)  The Cambridge handbook of violent behavior and aggression . (pp. 519 – 529) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Avatoon, 2021.  Customised Avatars . [image] Available at: <https://www.avatoon.me/> [Accessed 18 February 2021]. Baron, S., 2004. General strain, street youth, and crime: A test of Agnew's revised theory.  Criminology , [online] 42(2), pp.457-484. Available at: <https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00526.x> [Accessed 16 February 2021]. Beaver, K., Barnes, J. and Boutwell, B. (2014)  The Nurture versus Biosocial Debate in Criminology: On the Origins of Criminal Behaviour and Criminality . Los Angeles: Sage. Bennett, T. and Holloway, K. (2004) “Gang Membership, Drugs and Crime in the UK”  The British Journal of Criminology,  44(3), pp. 305 – 323. Brown, S. (2005)  Understanding youth and crime: Listening to youth . 2nd, Maidenhead: Open University Press, pp.31-222. Case, S. and Haines, K. (2009 ) Understanding youth offending: risk factor research, policy, and practice.  Cullompton: Willan. Chang, J., 2017.  Neo-tribe or subculture . [image] Available at: <http://jouchihchang.int-des.com/2017/02/20/neo-tribe-or-subculture/> [Accessed 23 February 2021]. Clipart Key, n.d.  Chav Cartoon . [image] Available at: <https://www.clipartkey.com/view/JbTJRo_chav-cartoon/> [Accessed 26 February 2021]. Cuevas, C., Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. and Ormrod, R., 2007. Juvenile Delinquency and Victimization.  Journal of Interpersonal Violence , [online] 22(12), pp.1581-1602. Available at: <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0886260507306498> [Accessed 17 February 2021]. Densley, J., Deucher, R. and Harding S. (2020) “An Introduction to Gangs and Serious Youth Violence in the United Kingdom”,  Youth Justice , 20(1), pp. 3 – 10. Discover Sociology, n.d.  Classic Youth Subcultures . [image] Available at: <http://www.discoversociology.co.uk/youth-subcultures/classic-youth-subcultures> [Accessed 18 February 2021].

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Donoghue, J., 2008. Antisocial Behaviour Orders (ASBOs) in Britain: Contextualizing Risk and Reflexive Modernization.  Sociology , [online] 42(2), pp.337-355. Available at: <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0038038507087357> [Accessed 25 February 2021]. Downes, D. (2013)  The Delinquent Solution: A Study in Subcultural Theory . London: Routledge. Farrington, D. (2007) “Childhood risk factors and risk focused prevention”,  The Oxford Handbook of Criminology , 4, pp. 602 – 640. Farnsworth, L. (1998) “Doing, Being and Boredom”,  Journal of Occupational Science , 5(3), pp. 140 – 146. Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. and Turner, H., 2007a. Poly-victimization: A neglected component in child victimization.  Child Abuse & Neglect , [online] 31(1), pp.7-26. Available at: <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213406003346?via%3Dihub> [Accessed 17 February 2021]. Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. and Turner, H., 2007b. Polyvictimization and trauma in a national longitudinal cohort.  Development and Psychopathology , [online] 19(01), pp.149-166. Available at: <https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/abs/polyvictimization-and-trauma-in-a-national-longitudinal-cohort/3A067DFF8C45A87C9131F04F1D860C60> [Accessed 17 February 2021]. Froggio, G., 2007. Strain and Juvenile Delinquency: A Critical Review of Agnew's General Strain Theory.  Journal of Loss and Trauma , [online] 12(4), pp.383-418. Available at: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15325020701249363?needAccess=true> [Accessed 19 February 2021]. Haines, K. and Case, S. (2008) The rhetoric and Reality of the "Risk Factor Prevention Paradigm"  Approach to Prevention and Reducing Youth Offending in Youth Justice  8(1), pp: 5 - 20. Haylock, S., Boshari, T., Alexander, E., Kumar, A., Minicam, L. and Pinder, R. (2020) “Risk factors associated with knife-crime in United Kingdom among young aged 10-24 years: a systematic review”,  BMC Public Health , 20, pp. 7 – 24. Hayward, K. and Yar, M., 2006. The “Chav” Phenomenon: Consumption, Media, and the Construction of a New Underclass.  Crime, Media, Culture , 2(1), pp.9-28. Heidensohn, F., 1989.  Crime and Society . London: Macmillan Education, pp.38-62.  Jacques, G., 2019.  Broken window glass . [image] Available at: <https://www.stockvault.net/photo/262581/broken-window-glass> [Accessed 11 February 2021]. Jang, S. and Agnew, R., 2015. Strain Theories and Crime. In:  International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences , 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd, pp.495-500. Little, C., 2011.  A different youth culture: Chav Culture in Britain 2003-2010 . Ph.D. The Manchester Metropolitan University.

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Mac, A., 2013.  Toronto Graffiti . [image] Available at: <https://traveldestinationbucketlist.wordpress.com/2013/06/28/urban-art-the-graffiti-subculture-in-toronto/> [Accessed 11 February 2021]. MacDonald, R., Shildrick, T., Webster, C. and Simpson, D., 2005. Growing Up in Poor Neighborhoods: The Significance of Class and Place in the Extended Transitions of ‘Socially Excluded’ Young Adults.  Sociology , 39(5), pp.873-891. MacDonald, R., 2006. Social Exclusion, Youth Transitions and Criminal Careers: Five Critical Reflections on ‘Risk’.  Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology , [online] 39(3), pp.371-383. Available at: <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1375/acri.39.3.371> [Accessed 25 February 2021]. Martin, G., 2009. Subculture, style, chavs, and consumer capitalism: Towards a critical cultural criminology of youth.  Crime, media, culture , [online] 5(2), pp.123-145. Available at: <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1741659009335613> [Accessed 22 February 2021]. McKenzie, L. (2015)  Getting by: Estates, class, and culture in austerity Britain . Bristol: Policy Press. McLaughlin, E. and Muncie, J., 2019.  The Sage dictionary of criminology . 4th ed. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp.527-529. Muggleton, D. (2005) “From classlessness to subculture: A Genealogy of post war British youth cultural analysis”,  Young,  13(2), pp. 205 – 219. Microsoft Office 365, n.d.  3D Models . [image] Available at: <https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/topic/get-creative-with-3d-models-ec5feb79-b0af-47f6-a885-151fcc88ac0a?ui=en-us&rs=en-us&ad=us> [Accessed 23 February 2021]. Murphy, S. (2019)  Theories of Youth Crimes . Available at https://www.youthink.wordpress.com/2019/07/21/theories-of-youth-crime Accessed 20th February 2020. Nichols, G. (2010)  Sport and Crime Reduction. The role of sports in tackling youth crime.  London: Routledge. Oxfordshire Youth, 2019.  Youth Justice . [image] Available at: <https://oxfordshireyouth.org/area-of-interest/cyp-forum-update-youth-justice-and-exploitation-service/> [Accessed 23 February 2021]. Palmer, S. (2009) “The origins and emergence of youth “gangs” in a British inner-city neighbourhood”,  Safer Communities , 8(2), pp. 17 – 26. Pitts, J. (2008)  Reluctant Gangsters: The changing face of youth crime . Cullompton: Willan Pitts, J. (1999)  Youth Crime in the UK.  In  Working with Young Offenders . Practical Social Work. London: Pallgrave. Salva, D., n.d.  The American Dream . [image] Available at: <https://www.dictionary.com/e/pop-culture/the-american-dream/> [Accessed 23 February 2021].

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Shaw, C and McKay, H (1972)  Juvenile delinquency and Urban Areas.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Snyder, S., Hartinger-Saunders, R., Brezina, T., Beck, E., Wright, E., Forge, N. and Bride, B., 2016. Homeless youth, strain, and justice system involvement: An application of general strain theory.  Children and Youth Services Review , [online] 62, pp.90-96. Available at: <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190740916300251> [Accessed 12 February 2021]. Thaxton, S and Agnew, R. (2018) “When Criminal Coping is Likely: An Examination of Conditioning Effects in General Strain Theory”  Journal of Quantitative Research , 34(4), pp. 887 – 920. The Collegian, 2019.  Scholarship Media . [image] Available at: <https://collegian.csufresno.edu/2019/09/preserving-youth-beauty-and-energy-as-you-age/#.YBrQN-j7Q2w> [Accessed 3 February 2021]. The NSPCC, (2020)  What is County Lines ? Available at:  https://www.learning.nspcc.org.uk/child-abuse-and-neglect/county-lines  [Accessed 17th February 2021]. Youth Voices, n.d. Stress. [image] Available at: <https://www.youthvoices.live/category/life-skills-fitness/stress/> [Accessed 23 February 2021]. Zach, J., 2018. Stressed. [image] Available at: <https://churchleaders.com/youth/youth-leaders-articles/288817-is-this-the-most-stressed-out-generation-in-history-jeremy-zach.html> [Accessed 23 February 2021].

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9)  Conclusion and Recommended further reading

(Densley, Deucher, and Harding, 2020, pp.3-10)

BOOK
The Cambridge handbook of violent behavior and aggression
Flannery, Daniel J.; Vazsonyi, Alexander T.; Waldman, Irwin D.; Credo Reference (Firm); 2007
O Available Online
Book reviews (2) >

(Agnew, 2007, in Flannery et al.,2007, pp.519-529 )

TOP
SEND TO
ARTICLE
An Introduction to Gangs and Serious Youth Violence in the United
Kingdom
Densley, James ; Deuchar, Ross ; Harding, Simon; Densley, James ; Deuchar, Ross ; Harding,
Simon
Youth justice, 2020-04, Vol.20 (1-2), p.3-10
This article introduces the special issue on UK gangs and youth violence. Written to coincide
with the launch of the National Centre for Gang Research...
PEER REVIEWED
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O Available Online

*All available online in the University “Library: OneSearch”

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If you require a full transcript of the audio (including citations), please contact Holly at:  s1701849@uni.cumbria.ac.uk

 Shaw, C and McKay, H (1972)  Juvenile delinquency and Urban Areas.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Snyder, S., Hartinger-Saunders, R., Brezina, T., Beck, E., Wright, E., Forge, N. and Bride, B., 2016. Homeless youth, strain, and justice system involvement: An application of general strain theory.  Children and Youth Services Review , [online] 62, pp.90-96. Available at: <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190740916300251> [Accessed 12 February 2021]. Thaxton, S and Agnew, R. (2018) “When Criminal Coping is Likely: An Examination of Conditioning Effects in General Strain Theory”  Journal of Quantitative Research , 34(4), pp. 887 – 920. The Collegian, 2019.  Scholarship Media . [image] Available at: <https://collegian.csufresno.edu/2019/09/preserving-youth-beauty-and-energy-as-you-age/#.YBrQN-j7Q2w> [Accessed 3 February 2021]. The NSPCC, (2020)  What is County Lines ? Available at:  https://www.learning.nspcc.org.uk/child-abuse-and-neglect/county-lines  [Accessed 17th February 2021]. Youth Voices, n.d. Stress. [image] Available at: <https://www.youthvoices.live/category/life-skills-fitness/stress/> [Accessed 23 February 2021]. Zach, J., 2018. Stressed. [image] Available at: <https://churchleaders.com/youth/youth-leaders-articles/288817-is-this-the-most-stressed-out-generation-in-history-jeremy-zach.html> [Accessed 23 February 2021].

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 If you require a full transcript of the audio (including citations), please contact Holly at:  s1701849@uni.cumbria.ac.uk  

Theoretical Perspectives on Youth Justice

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