CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION. When landscape designer, architect and theorist, Andrew Jackson Downing wrote his. 

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When landscape designer, architect and theorist, Andrew Jackson Downing wrote his

influential book, The Architecture of Country Houses, Including Designs for Cottages, Farm

Houses, and Villas in 1850, he popularized an artistic prescription of color relationship that

became associated with the Picturesque movement. Proposing combinations of hues for

landscapes as well as to buildings, these color combinations enhanced shadow, highlighted

specific features, recalled natural materials and both softened and emphasized bold outlines and

projecting profiles of the predominantly Gothic architectural style. Architectural color palettes

favored muted paint colors to blend with the landscape, specific applications of red, and

generally did not promote the use of white. During this period architecture was intended to be

part of a romantic composition in harmony with a natural landscape. Like picturesque paintings

of the period, the total ensemble of the built and natural environment was meant to possess both

beauty and the sublime.  Color was significant aspect of that achievement.1

As scholars and preservation practitioners have sought to understand how color was

actually used in architecture during this period they have turned to sources such as Downing and

as well as the pattern books his writing informed. They have also referred to scholarship based

on those sources. Due to the limited availability of paint analysis reports they have had to rely

heavily on these sources in estimating the original appearances of Picturesque buildings.

The opportunity to contribute to knowledge of the architectural paint colors of this period

and style arises with the investigation of the architectural finishes of the 1850 Italianate villa Ivy

Lodge, located in Wister neighborhood of the Germantown, Philadelphia.  Built by John Jay

Smith, a noteworthy Philadelphian and proponent of Downing and the Picturesque Movement,

Ivy Lodge is an excellent example of rus in urbe genre of Picturesque architecture.2 Not a. 

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Ivy Lodge is an excellent example of rus in urbe genre of Picturesque architecture.2 Not a

Downing styled country cottage but an urbane expression of the movement, it offers the chance

to explore how the color of different building typologies within the movement were handled.

Analysis of the finishes on the trim and door assemblies of the exterior of this stone house as

well the interior finishes on the entrance hall will be the springboard for exploring Picturesque

The study asks these questions: What were the original exterior painted colors at Ivy

Lodge?  What were the original interior colors? Were there changes to the color during Smith’s

tenure.  How closely do they align with Downing's colors for the Picturesque aesthetic?  Do the

colors correspond to color prescriptions in pattern books and treatises of the period and style?

Are they consistent with scholarship about color of the period and style?  In what way do they

shed light on Smith’s aesthetic preferences or influences? Do the finishes reflect the influence of

the presumed architects? How are they different from palettes of preceding styles and periods.3

The use of color in architecture throughout history has been intricately linked to

cultural and societal movements. During America's colonial period, for example, the use of pale

hues in residential buildings reflected the influence of European classical architecture as a

2 Rus in urb = an illusion of countryside created by a building or garden within a city. The phrase, which is Latin 
and means literally ‘country in the city’, was coined originally by the Spanish-born Latin epigrammatist Martial 
(AD c.40 to c.104). https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-
releases/rus-urbe. 
 
3 It is essential to note that this research considers only a single stone building where painted color was limited 
to trim and other features, thus restricting application of findings to other structures from the same era. Additionally, 
this study assumes the widespread influence of Downing's landscape design concepts during the mid-19th century, 
which may have played a significant role in inspiring the design and finishes of Ivy Lodge.

symbol of civilization, honesty, and progress.4 Color represented sophistication and prestige. As. 

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symbol of civilization, honesty, and progress.4 Color represented sophistication and prestige. As

a case in point, George Washington's Palladian estate, Mount Vernon, demonstrates how he used

the language of color by choosing for the small dining room verdigris paint, a pigment requiring

great expertise to employ, and a color believed to signify "gratefulness to the eye."5

4 Barksdale W. Maynard. “‘Best, Lowliest Style!’ The Early-Nineteenth-Century Rediscovery of American Colonial 
Architecture.” p.346. 
5 “Room by Room.” George Washington's Mount Vernon. Accessed December 13, 2022. 
https://www.mountvernon.org/the-estate-gardens/the-mansion/the-mansion-room-by-room/.

Figure 1.1. Front facade of Roseland Cottage in Woodstock, CT. Source: 
https://roselandcottage.org/deepzoom/a-brilliant-crushed-strawberry/.

The next century found such colors as the "crushed strawberry"6 exterior color of. 

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The next century found such colors as the "crushed strawberry"6 exterior color of

Roseland Cottage, an 1846 Gothic Revival cottage by English architect Joseph C. Wells in

Woodstock, Connecticut, showcasing a fashionable and rare color palette. Not unlike

Washington, owner Henry Bowen, a wealthy newspaper editor and abolitionist, communicated

both his status and currency with fashion by choosing the reddish pink with dark red trim for his

The exterior finishes of Nuits, an Italianate villa of 1853 are an example of Downing's

principles regarding both materials and color. The former residence of John Jacob Astor III

nestled along the picturesque Hudson River in the Westchester village, this three-story mansion

was originally commissioned by the Franco-American merchant François Cottenet, who longed

for his homeland in a riverfront villa.7 To realize this vision, Cottenet enlisted the services of the

German-born architect Detlef Lienau, who sourced a light-yellow limestone from the French city

of Caen. The villa's soft, yellow-cream exterior woodwork compliments the limestone

construction, while the muted green shutters harmonize with the verdant hedges. Campaigns of

repainting over time, and the presence of few remaining paint analysis reports documenting the

Picturesque color palettes, underline the limited empirical evidence of how widely or well these

colors actually existed., as portrayed in the early exterior paints studied at the picturesque

Boody-Johnson House in Maine (See Chapter 5, section i).

6 “A Brilliant Crushed Strawberry.’” Roseland Cottage. Accessed March 2, 2023. 
https://roselandcottage.org/deepzoom/a-brilliant-crushed-strawberry/. 
 
7 Anne Mancusco, “A Mansion Where an Astor Lived.” The New York Times. May 1, 2015.

The historic period in which color changed most radically was the long Victorian era.. 

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The historic period in which color changed most radically was the long Victorian era.

From the sober palette of the post-Federal period to the riotous colors of the late Victorian, the

Victorian era witnessed rapid advances in paint technology. One of the Victorian era’s off-

springs, the Picturesque movement of the mid-nineteenth century, did not necessarily take

advantage of emerging advances in paint technology. Instead, the Picturesque movement

referenced an established color palette - advocating for harmony between architecture and the

natural environment in both design and color. Downing, advocated for the use of natural-colored

finishes - such as browns, ochres, and greens - to achieve a sense of continuity and balance

between nature and the man-made. While Downing's prescriptions for Picturesque colors on both

Figure 1.2. Nuit, former house of John Jacob Astor III, located in the Westchester village of 
Irvington, New York. Source: https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/03/realestate/a-mansion-where-
an-astor-lived.html.

wooden and stone structures were well developed in theory, the extent to which these colors. 

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wooden and stone structures were well developed in theory, the extent to which these colors

appeared on buildings is not well understood.

Downing was an American horticulturist, writer, landscape designer, architectural critic,

and founder of the periodical, the Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste -

which he edited from its founding in 1846 until his death in 1852. He is one of the founders of

American landscape architecture and highly influential in the Picturesque aesthetic ideal.

Downing’s book, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, published in

1841, was one of the most popular books on the subject in the United States during the 19th

The picturesque aesthetic, that emerged in 18th century England shaped Downing's beliefs

about landscape design. It emphasized the natural beauty of irregularity and the charm of the

rustic.8 Downing intertwined the role of architecture within its surrounding landscape stating:

“Buildings of almost every description, and particularly those for the 
habitation of man, will be considered by the mind of taste not only as architectural 
objects of greater or less merit but as parts of the general scene, united with the 
surrounding lawn, embosomed in tufts of trees and shrubs, if properly designed 
and constructed, they will even serve to impress a character upon the surrounding 
landscape.”9

According to Downing, the integration of the genius of the landscape into the design and

construction of a rural residence would significantly increase the likelihood of achieving a

“Their effect will frequently be good or bad, not merely as they are 
excellent or indifferent examples of a certain style of building, but as they are 
happily or unhappily combined with the adjacent scenery. The intelligent observer

8 A. Bermingham, Landscape, and Ideology: The English rustic tradition 1740-1860 (London, 1987), 13-14. 
9 Andrew Jackson Downing. A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North 
America. (1841) pp. 321-321. 
10 William Pierson, American Builders and Their Architects, Volume 2: Technology and the Picturesque, The 
Corporate and Early Gothic Styles, p. 350

will readily appreciate the truth and acknowledge the value and necessity of something besides architectural knowledge. And he will perceive how much more likely to be successful are the efforts of him, who, in composing and constructing a rural residence, calls into the aid of architecture, the genius of the landscape, whose mind is imbued with a taste for beautiful scenery, and who so elegantly and ingeniously engrafts art upon nature, as to heighten her beauties; while by the harmonious union, he throws a borrowed charm around his creation.”11 A skilled use of hues and careful consideration of surrounding elements, such as lighting,. 

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will readily appreciate the truth and acknowledge the value and necessity of 
something besides architectural knowledge. And he will perceive how much more 
likely to be successful are the efforts of him, who, in composing and constructing 
a rural residence, calls into the aid of architecture, the genius of the landscape, 
whose mind is imbued with a taste for beautiful scenery, and who so elegantly 
and ingeniously engrafts art upon nature, as to heighten her beauties; while by the 
harmonious union, he throws a borrowed charm around his creation.”11 
 
A skilled use of hues and careful consideration of surrounding elements, such as lighting,

plants, and materials, contributed to a dynamic flow within the landscape. This approach artfully

guided the viewer's gaze through the garden, highlighting features like statues, follies, and other

architectural elements.12. Figure 1.3. The Original landscape plan at Ivy Lodge illustrated in Downing's publication The Horticulturist feature “Denwood, the Residence of John Jay Smith, Esq., Germantown, PA., Near Philadelphia,” n.s. 3, no. 5 (May 1853): 205-6.. 

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Figure 1.3.  The Original landscape plan at Ivy Lodge illustrated in Downing's publication The Horticulturist 
feature “Denwood, the Residence of John Jay Smith, Esq., Germantown, PA., Near Philadelphia,” n.s. 3, no. 5 (May 
1853): 205-6.

The latter half of the mid-19th century Picturesque had evolved into a more formal,

symmetrical approach known as the English Landscape style. The work of Capability Brown and

Humphry Repton played a significant role in shaping this style, which underscored the

relationship between architecture and nature using sweeping lawns, ornamental lakes, and

12 U. Price, Essays on the Picturesque, Vol. 2 (London, 1810), 148.

strategically placed groves of trees. Downing saw this style to harmoniously integrate. 

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strategically placed groves of trees. Downing saw this style to harmoniously integrate

architecture and landscape, creating a visually striking environment. 13

The English Landscape style reflected Downing's belief that successfully integrating

these two elements - architecture and landscape - was crucial to achieving a harmonious design.

14 A paradox and early emergence of this shift can be seen in Ivy Lodge's symmetrical exterior

coupled with its more novel interior layout. (See Chapter 2). Applying this evolution of the

English landscape style prompts the question of paint trends during this period, particularly the

shift from the muted and drab palette of the early Picturesque to a more pronounced and

expressive palette as a proclamation of Picturesque values. Due to the time of its construction, it

can be assumed that the colors at Ivy Lodge would more closely align with those naturalistic

colors commonly seen during the early Picturesque movement.

Two architects are believed to have contributed to the design of Ivy Lodge - Gervase

Wheeler and Thomas Ustick Walter. According to historical records, the British-born architect,

Gervase Wheeler, is presumed to be the original designer of the house. Wheeler's interest in rural

domestic architecture is articulated in his publication, Rural Home: or Sketches of Houses Suited

to American Country Life, released in 1851 - one year after the construction of Ivy Lodge.

Wheeler’s passion for country dwellings and their surroundings led him to submit designs of

country houses to Downing, who later featured them in his editorial, The Horticulturist.15 This

exposure led to a brief period of recognition for Wheeler before his sudden departure from

Philadelphia in 1850 - the same year Ivy Lodge was built.16 Due to the lack of documented

13 Ibid. 
14 Ibid.  
15 Renee E. Tribert. "Gervase Wheeler: Mid-Nineteenth Century British Architect in America." p.51.   
16 Nancy Holst. “Pattern books and the suburbanization of Germantown, Pennsylvania, in the mid-nineteenth 
century." p.416.

construction records, it remains unclear the extent that Wheeler's design was executed and if the. 

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construction records, it remains unclear the extent that Wheeler's design was executed and if the

paint was applied to the house during his tenure as architect.

While it is speculated that Wheeler was the original designer of the house, it is also

alleged that Thomas Ustick Walter - who was interested in country cottage and villa designs, as

well as Greek Revival design - may have subsequently "carried out and improved" upon

Wheeler's initial plans.17 While scant records of construction make it difficult to determine the

extent of Walter's involvement in the building's design, it is known that he agreed to partake in

some aspect of the house’s design for a professional fee of $125 - which suggests that he at least

supervised the construction process.18 It is not surprising that the owner of Ivy Lodge, John Jay

Smith, would have turned to Walter to complete his house as the two men co-authored a book

titled Cottage and Villa Architecture: 200 Designs. Although Walter recorded every drawing he

prepared in his diary, there is no mention of preparing anything for Smith.19

John Jay Smith was a prominent figure in Philadelphia's intellectual and cultural circles,

holding esteemed positions such as Librarian at the Philadelphia Library Company and

hereditary trustee of the Loganian Library, while also remaining an influential member of the

Holst’s notes: “The circumstances surrounding the construction of the house are further suggested by captions 
adjacent to a photo of Walter contained in the Smith family records. One note suggests: “He  
kindly carried out the English architect’s plans of Ivy Lodge.” The second indicates: “This is our friend Mr. Walters, 
who helped dear mother with Ivy Lodge in father’s absence. The English architect disappeared.” These notes are 
attached to an interleaved sheet between pages 282 and 283 in a copy of John Jay Smith, Recollections, that was 
annotated by his daughter Elizabeth P. Smith and remains in the collection of the LCP. (It is tempting to speculate 
that the English architect may have been Gervase Wheeler, who fled Philadelphia for New York in dishonor in 
1850, “when it was discovered that the popular author Currer Bell — whom Wheeler claimed to know — was 
actually a pseudonym for Charlotte Bronte.”  
 
17 "Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste 1846-1875," American Periodicals May 1, 1853. 
18 Holst, p. 416. “According to the published description, "Denwood," 206, Walter, who meticulously itemized in 
his diary every drawing he prepared, failed to mention preparing any for Smith, making only the notation, that he 
agreed to build Smith’s cottage for a professional compensation of $125, suggesting that he at least supervised the 
construction (Thomas U. Walter Diary, 8:117, 30 Nov. 1849, Athenaeum of Philadelphia).” 
19 Thomas U. Walter Diary, 8:117, 30 Nov. 1849, Athenaeum of Philadelphia.

Quaker community. Smith collaborated with notable figures in architecture and landscape. 

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Quaker community. Smith collaborated with notable figures in architecture and landscape

design, including architect William Strickland and landscape gardener John Notman, in the

planning and development of Laurel Hill - Philadelphia's pioneering rural cemetery, which was

completed in 1836. It is likely that Smith was introduced to the work of Gervase Wheeler

through his tenure as editor of Andrew Jackson Downing's The Horticulturalist from 1855 to

The design of Ivy Lodge reflects Smith’s interest in architecture, landscape design, and

horticulture. However, the degree to which he contributed to the design of the house, and its

surrounding landscape, remains uncertain. Drawings featured in the May 1853 issue of The

Horticulturalist depict an intricately designed garden with fruit and ornamental trees, described

as a "triumph of garden art."21 In 1873, Smith established the Germantown Horticultural Society,

which indicated his strong interest in horticulture. Although Smith’s association with Downing

suggests that he would be inclined to choose a Picturesque color palette for Ivy Lodge, the extent

to which his interest in the Picturesque influenced the choice of paint color for the house is

ambiguous, and even less clear, considering the possible influence of Neoclassical enthusiast,

Thomas Ustick Walter. Given that the villa style supported by Downing included specific

guidelines for paint color and placement, as well as the order of landscaping, it is probable that

the colors used at Ivy Lodge were chosen with great intention.

20 "John Jay Smith." John Jay Smith | The Cultural Landscape Foundation. 
21 Saunders, 321. In 1881, the prominent local gardener Thomas Meehan, quoted in Edwin C. Jellett, Germantown 
Gardens and Gardeners (Germantown, Philadelphia: Horace F. McCann, 1914), 69.

Conclusions. Original Finishes: 1850s. The paint findings revealed a near-unanimous early finish of cream paint with cream. 

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The paint findings revealed a near-unanimous early finish of cream paint with cream

paint sequences identified on 51 of 66 exterior samples. The northeast shutters exhibit up to

seventeen sequences of paint finishes with the earliest campaigns featuring white-cream paint on

the substrate and several other campaigns composed of light brown, gray-brown, gray, and green

paints. Similarly, layers identified on the northwest façade on the summer kitchen's board, batten

siding, and southwest 1874 bay window extension match the later brown, gray, and green paints.

This detail provides a datum point and indicates that the sequence was applied during or after the

The northwest façade board and batten sheathing included up to nine finish campaigns -

with most samples exhibiting an early cream primer and paint layer on the wood substrate. The

early cream sequence was identified in all but one sample, which contained a light gray-brown

finish applied directly to the substrate. However, the presence of a light paint in the wood cells of

the substrate determined that the light gray-brown paint was not the original color, suggesting

that the earlier cream paint had worn off entirely - possibly due to its precarious location on the

edge of a siding board. The northwest windows had similar stratigraphy as the board and batten

samples in campaigns one through three, however the stratigraphy differed in the succeeding

campaigns. The results of the front facade analysis show that some finishes were consistent with

those used on other exterior woodwork while others appeared to be unique to the southeast

façade. The samples from the windows on the second and third floors exhibited inconsistent

results while cream primer was identified in the samples from the earliest campaign on the

arched window on the second story. Interestingly, dark-gray paint was identified on the cornice

fascia and bracket. However, more samples would be needed to determine the paint's chronology. 

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fascia and bracket. However, more samples would be needed to determine the paint's chronology

as other samples from the frieze and the brackets exhibit cream paints, consistent with other

facades. The interior findings similarly revealed an early cream paint for most woodwork, wood-

graining on the cornice brackets, and blue-green wallpaper on the drywall.

DRAFT3---

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