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UPSA UNIVERSITY OF PROFESIONAL STUDIES, ACCRA Scholarship with Professionalism.

UPSA UNIVERSITY OF PROFESIONAL STUDIES, ACCRA Scholarship with Professionalism.

Session objectives. Explain What is Communications Discuss Functions of Communication Explore The Communication Process Identify Models of Communication.

Some definitions. COMMUNICATION, can be defined differently based on the context or discipline. E.g. Stevens (1950), who defines communication as “the discriminatory response of an organism to stimuli. From the use of the words – ‘discriminatory’, ‘response’ and ‘stimuli’, it becomes obvious that this scholar is a psychologist. Hovland (1948): "The process whereby an individual transmits stimuli, usually verbal, to influence the behaviour of another individual". He, however, prefaces this definition by saying that "communication is the sharing of meaning ..." Hovland has given an anthropocentric perspective to this definition. Hence, the definition is "Human Centred" Hovland is said to be the father of modern "Rhetorics". How to use persuasion to change people’s attitudes..

Some definitions. Schacter (1951) : "The mechanism by which power is exercised". This scholar is a political scientist. How does his definition play out in a communication situation? When two people communicate, power is at play. This definition is relevant to the significance and importance of communication. In the political context, power is a very important weapon. Communication is power; hence, if you can catch people's wind by manipulating them through communication, then you are fully in control. Most super nations have tried to colonise the world through media. How could this play out in branding? Who is your favorite Superhero? What is your favorite soft drink?.

What does this image communicate ?. Coca Cola: Open Happiness — Yu Tsai.

Some definitions. Steinfatt (1977): "The process of exchanging mutually understood symbols". Sarbaugh (1988): "The process of using signs and symbols which elicit meaning in another person or persons". Both are based on the context of symbols - linguistic or psycholinguistic points of view. Nwankwo (1973): “An interaction between a minimum of two symbolic systems…”.

Some definitions. Cooley (1909): "The mechanisms through which human relations exist and develop all the symbols of the mind together, with the means of conveying them through space and presenting them in time". This scholar is a sociologist. He has brought in the 'symbolic - interactionist perspective of sociology into communication. This perspective has a lot of implications for communication as this theme of 'interactionism' is a very important tool for determining the role of communication in a society..

Our Working definition. Communication means transferring thoughts, information, emotion and ideas through gesture, voice, symbols, signs and expressions from one person to another..

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION. Two or more persons: Communication involves at least two people. Sender: Who has a message to communicate? Receiver: Who gets the message and converts the message into thoughts. Message: Two-way process:.

CLASSIFICATIONS of communication. Diagram Description automatically generated.

examples. No parking No stopping Compulsory Compulsory or standing ahead only right Non-verbal communication.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION. Communication facilitates Information dissemination Communication provides entertainment Communications helps us to Persuasion/influence others Communication engenders debate and discussion Communication helps us create communities Communication helps us assert and differentiate our personality Communication forms and strengthens relationships.

THE Communication process. The communication process has six key elements. Source/encoder Receiver/Decoder The message Channel Noise Feedback.

Elements in the Communication Process. Source/ Sender Sender's Field of Experience Encoding Channel Message Receiver's Field of Experience Decoding Receiver.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION. Linear, interactional & transactional.

Linear model. This is a one- way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. In this model there is no feedback or response which may allow for a continuous exchange of information. The linear model does not adequately explain other forms of communication including face to face conversation..

THIS LINEAR COMMUNICATION MODEL WAS FIRST INTRODUCED BY CLAUDE SHANNON AND WARREN WEAVER IN 1949..

Shannon and Weaver's original model contains five elements information source, transmitter, channel, receiver, and destination.

Schramm's Model of Communication.. Wilber Schramm proposed the model of communication in 1954 Encoding and decoding are two most important factors of an effective communication without which information can never flow between two individuals Schramm’s model also stressed the need for feedback to make communication complete.

Osgood-Schramm model. messa encoder interpreter decoder messa decoder interpreter encoder.

The Schramm model views communication as a process that takes place between a sender and a receiver. There will be also a message, and a medium through which the message can be transmitted. The receiver may have a method of sending feedback on the message, to confirm that the message has been correctly received and understood, but noise and interference will affect both. Attention should be given to denotative and connotative meanings Connotative meaning could be affected by emotional factors, wrong body movements, gestures, facial expressions, etc. Denotative meaning the e xplicit or direct meaning or set of meanings of a word or expression ..

Transactional. The transactional is the most dynamic of communication models. One notable feature of this model is the move from referring to people as senders and receivers to referring to people as communicators . This implies that communication is achieved as people both send and receive messages..

Interactional. The interaction model of communication describes communication as a two- way process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION. Encoding Barriers  Insensitivity to Receiver  Lack of Basic Communication Skills  Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject  Information Overload  Emotional Interference.

TRANSMITTING BARRIERS.  Physical Distractions –e.g. Noisy environnement  Conflicting Messages  Channel Barriers –wrong channels  Long Communication Chain -Distortions.

DECODING BARRIERS.  Lack of Interest  Lack of Knowledge  Lack of Communication Skills  Emotional Distractions  Physical Distractions.

RESPONDING BARRIERS. No Provision for Feedback Inadequate Feedback.

CULTURAL BARRIERS. Cultural features of various groups affect communication Easterners-Relaxed Brits: Formal and official Americans: Casual and matter-of-fact nature Germans: Thorough French: Extreme courtesy and politeness American vs. someone from the East. The loop formed by the tip of the thumb and index finger is a signal of agreement in North America but an obscenity in the Southern states..

STRATEGIES TO Overcome COMMUNICATION BARRIERS. Brevity and Simplicity Humility (or at least in outlook) Empathy-It is tactile, present; it is powerful; it is not on the internet Do not exaggerate To overcome any cultural barrier to effective communication one has to understand of the culture of the receiver(s)/decoder..

FURTHER DISCUSSIONS?. How do brands communicate? Let’s look at examples and what they communicated to us on a personal level. How can brands communicate effectively?.

See the source image.

DATA BREACH: Subscribers of Vodafone, AirtelTigo, Glo at risk?.

UPSA UNIVERSITY OF PROFESSIONAL STUDIES, ACCRA Scholarship with Professionalism.

Session objectives. Explain Uses/relevance/functions of theories Discuss The building blocks of communication: Models of communication Explore Non verbal Communication theories: Identify Semiotics; Proxemics theory of communication.

What are communication theories. A theory is “a way of making sense of a disturbing situation” A(Kaplan 1964) “ A theory is simply a generalization about a phenomenon, an explanation of how or why something occurs “(Botan and Kreps 2000) Theories allow Us To Impose Order on naturally unordered experiences (Fawcett&Downs,1992). Therefore theories are ways in which we make sense of our experiences by organization them and making sense of how and why those things happened..

RELEVANCE AND FUNCTIONS OF theories. Provide a systematic way of viewing random or chaotic experiences. Give us a structure with which to look at the experiences, or at the data derived from the measurement of the experiences and order and analyze the data in a coherent manner. The function of a theory then is to describe, explain or predict limited properties of reality..

Conceptual/ Practical problems. Conceptual problem exists when a particular theory exhibits inconsistencies that need to be clarified.  This has encouraged the assessment and promotion of theory construction. Alternative theories or extension of a theory. The role of theory in dealing with practical or applied problems is particularly important. Communication scholars often confront applied issues such as how to improve the provisions of healthcare; how to enhance the effectiveness of problem-solving organizational groups; how to enhance public participation in policymaking (media participation); how to effectively communicate policies?.

Empirical Problems. Cohen 1994 drawing from the work of Laudon 1982 proposes that the central function of theory is to solve problems. According to Laudon an empirical problem is "anything about the world which strikes us as odd or other wise in need of explanation".

Attributes of theories. Six ways of evaluating a theory: Theoretical Scope-Is it broad enough to apply to a number of communication situations? -Parasitic Appropriateness-Adequate description of the domain Heuristic Value/provocativeness-Extension Validity/Durability-Does it stand the test of time? Parsimony-Self-explanatory; logically simple Openness-Should be understood by everyone.

Other Attributes. Predictive power Hypothesis should be testable Internal Consistence The internal logic of a theory should be easily assessed without carrying out any test.

Building blocks of Communication. People–Who will you address your message to? Who are the personalities of the people you want to influence.? Think about their perspective. What do you want them to think? How do you want them to feel ? Think about the impact of your communication. What do you want them to-do? Message -What channel is best to achieve the results you desire? Which channel will be faster or effective? Think about what’s most productive for both parties..

Context. Where do you deliver your message? Time, place, place, (including culture), what is the relationship? The context ( makes a huge difference )What will you consider when to deliver bad news /when to propose, when to call it quits?.

Semiotics/Symbolic Interactionism. Ferdinand De Saussure 1900 s) A study of signs and symbols and their meaning. Interpretation It is a general philosophical theory of signs and symbols that deals especially with their function in both artificially constructed and natural languages and comprises syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Semiotics: ()ecnding the Hidden Message. D: 94 € C etc (S c c.

Charles Sanders Peirce. Sign: “something which stands to somebody for something,” He categorized signs into three main types: (1) An icon resembles its referent (such as a road sign for falling rocks) (2) An index-associated with its referent(as smoke is a sign of fire.).

Why is semiotics important. It seems a strange thing, when one comes to pnder it, that a sign should leave its interpreter to sup$/ a part of its meaning; but the explanation of the phenomenon lies in the fact that the entire universe - not merely the universe of existents, but all that universe, embracing the universe of uiftnts as a part, the universe which we are all to to as - that all this universe is *fused with if it is not exclusively of 539. p,.

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UPSA UNIVERSITY OF PROFESSIONAL STUDIES, ACCRA Scholarship with Professionalism.