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Due to the alarming climate change and high CO2 emissions, we are required to transition to better 
kinds of transportation systems. This paper is a review of some of the existing literature and 
research publications that propose alternative fuel technologies and how to implement the said 
technologies.

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1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1

2.1 The Current Road Transport Sector ………………………………………………………………………………………  2 
2.2 Alternate vehicle technologies/fuels ………………………………………………………………………………..…..  2

2.2.1 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles …………………………………………………………….……. 3 
2.2.2 Electric Vehicles ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….  3 
2.2.3 Biofuel – Ethanol ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

3. How useful are alternative fuel technologies ………………………………………………………………………….. 4 
 
3.1 Range ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4

3.2 Power ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5

3.3 Costs …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6

3.4 Compatibility with Current technologies …………………………………………………………………… 7

4. Competitors in the market ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7 
5. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7

6.References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8

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The world passenger transport in its current state contributes heavily to carbon dioxide emissions. 
Engineers and scientists have conveniently developed alternative fuel technologies like battery 
electric drives and hydrogen fuels cells that should help with energy efficiency in transportation. 
Several of these new technologies are already commercially available. This paper aims to look at 
ways to implement these new technologies (according to research recommendations), but we will 
first analyse the current state of the world’s transport system with the dominance of the internal 
combustion engines.

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According to Tsita [Tsita, 2017], Greece is experiencing a reduced energy demand for road 
transportation. Tsita also expects this reduction to continue as a result of the debt and financial crisis 
of Greece, especially seeing that almost all of the country’s oil and gas demands are imported. Tsita 
and Pivachi [18] propose that Greece fuel consumption figures will normalise post the financial crisis. 
Other ways Greece is able to keep the low fuel consumption figures is through tax penalties to cars 
with low fuel efficiency, improved road infrastructures, improved networks of public transport, and 
the technical inspection of vehicles as well as replacing heavy vehicles with lighter ones. One 
drawback is that Greece has an old fleet of vehicles that range between 10 and 20 years [Tsita, 
2017], this means the majority of the vehicles have low consumption efficiency. Unfortunately, the 
use of biodiesel has not been consistent enough to reach high energy levels. Three other challenges 
presented by Tsita are, 1) the high dependency on road transport, 2) insufficiency of road 
infrastructure, and 3) the underestimation of costs pertaining to road infrastructure.

On the other hand, we have differing sentiments about the “current” state of the road transport 
sector in Canada. “Current” is used in this text to imply the 2000s, and we are assuming there are no 
significant changes in road transport trends between the years 2008 and 2017 so we can contrast 
the findings of Tsita’s research to that of Steenhof. [Steenhof, 2008] reports that the Canadian 
passenger travel has increased by nearly 31% since 1990. In addition to the increase in population, 
the average Canadian also travels on average longer distances [Steenhof, 2008]. Commuting to 
work, shopping, and social activities account for 90% of all passenger travelling [Steenhof, 2008]. 
Naturally, the dominant mode of transport is personal passenger vehicles like compact cars and light 
trucks. The only notable alternative fuel technologies for Canada were hybrid gas-electric cars and 
ethanol blends as a fuel type. The market demand for hybrid cars has, however, been curbed 
because their efficiencies do not outweigh their increased capital cost when compared to the 
already popular compact cars.

The fuel consumption rates of the vehicle fleet are important parameters that influence the fuel 
consumption and the corresponding emission levels. We are going to review the alternative 
technologies and fuels proposed in the different pieces of research.

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2.2.1 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) Vehicles

Internal combustion engines are the primary type of engine used in automotive and shipping 
because they offer economy and excellent drivability. The concern is they contribute majorly to air 
pollutants like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and other harmful compounds. 
But recently, the reduction in these emissions has become a focal point in engine development. 
[Tsita, 2017] proposes that to change the market significantly, we will have to improve the efficiency 
of vehicles, the fleet renewal, and the introduction of more efficient and less polluting new 
technologies.

Jeroen Struben however, sings a slightly different tune. In [Struben, 2008] he points that alternate 
technologies fail due to their high costs and low functionality (as compared to ICE). This limits their 
market potential. On the other hand, Struben argues, gasoline is so low cost such that its 
environmental and other negative impacts are not quite reflected. The low tax on gasoline is the 
reason internal combustion engines dominate, and the success of the ICE suppresses the emergence 
of other alternatives, hence it continues to dominate.

2.2.2 Alternative Technology - Electric Vehicles

“Electric vehicles have no tailpipe emissions, and when powered by renewable electricity they 
contribute to reducing CO2 emissions and fossil fuel consumption,” [Tsita, 2017]. According to Tsita 
however, the electric car market is not yet well-developed and there is no proper infrastructure to 
serve such a market.

It is interesting to note that in Technological Forecasting & Social Change (2008), Steenhof’ holds a 
slightly contradictory view. According to [Steinhof, 2008], hybrid gas-electric vehicles are already 
mass produced , and major vehicle manufacturers have sufficient production capacity in place (or 
have at least announced so).

Although both authors’ research correspond that electric cars are more energy efficient than 
vehicles powered by internal combustion, we are intrigued to know how one finds the electric car 
market to be “immature” and not well-developed, while the other reported - in 2008 - that electric 
cars are already mass-produced.

Because internal combustion engines vastly dominate the transportation industry, it might be more 
feasible to find an alternative greener fuel that is compatible with ICEs, than trying to completely 
replace them with an alternative technology such as electric cars. This is where fuels like ethanol come 
in. Ethanol has a high octane number that allows for its use as fuel in spark-ignition engines, a type of 
internal combustion engines, at a higher compression ratio.

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3.  How Useful are alternative Fuel Technologies?

Below we compare the usefulness of the different technologies using four performance criteria: 
range, power, financial cost, and compatibility with current technologies.

Figure 1 below shows how the range of new electric vehicle models compare to that of the average 
fuel car (source, https://www.wltpfacts.eu/). The newer models of electric vehicles compete quite 
well against their fuel counterparts, with the Tesla S performing considerably higher than the 
average fuel car.

Figure 1. The range of electric cars vs the range of the average fuel car

Range Of New Electric
Vehicle Models
Kia
e.Niro
Chevrolet
Bolt EV
Average
fuel car
Hyundai
Kona EIEtric
Tesla Model S
Long Range

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The table below summaries performance parameters between diesel-, petrol- and electricity-fuelled 
cars from the same manufacturer, (Volkswagen & USEPA, 2016).

Table 1. Characteristics of Electric Cars vs. Petrol and Diesel cars.

Electricity 
1249 
318 
100 
290 
201 
16.8 kWh/100

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We again compare the electric car to the gas car using a parameter relevant to the majority of 
customers, monetary cost.

Figure 2. The financial cost of an electric vs fuel car over time (source: https://blog.wallbox.com/wp-

Electric Vehicle VS. Gas Car Cost:
Comparing The Cumulative Cost
Of Ownership Per Year
2020 Hyundai Kona AWD
sooooo
$20,000
so
2020 Hyundai Kona Electric (Includes "SCO EV tax credit S incentive)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Source: Voh•clc CO't Calculator from the US Oeportrncnt of https//afdr„cngrq•,'.gov/rsc/

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3.4 Compatibility with current technologies

Lastly, we compare how electric cars and ethanol fuelled cars are compatible with current 
technologies that are already compatible with the widespread petrol vehicles.

ICE – Petrol and Diesel 
Electric Cars 
ICE – Ethanol fuel

industry has majorly 
revolved around gas

Subsequently, these 
will remain highly 
compatible with

Additionally, because 
most people usually

overnight charge at 
home should suffice. 
Therefore, medium

No existing vehicles 
are designed to use 
100% ethanol as fuel. 
According to the AFCD, 
it is primarily blended

compatibility to 
existing engines. 
Therefore, low 
compatibility.

Notable competitors in the alternative industry include manufacturers like Tesla, Toyota, Kia and 
Volkswagen.

The alternative fuel technologies that were covered in the publications reviewed included electric 
hybrid cars, ethanol as biofuel, and how they perform in comparison to traditionally petrol-fuelled 
cars. Although the process of going greener is gradual, the reviewed literature ultimately proposes 
that we develop infrastructure that can cater to the electric cars and biofuels as they are more 
energy efficient, and they have already penetrated the market successfully.

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Geels F.W, 2012, A socio-technical analysis of low-carbon transitions: Introducing the multi-level 
perspective into transport studies, University of Sussex, UK

Steenhof P.A, McInnis B.C, 2008, A comparison of alternative technologies to de-carbonize 
Canada's passenger transportation sector, (n.p), Ottawa, Canada. [Available online at 
www.sciencedirect.com]

Struben J.J.R, Sterman J.D, 1996, Transition challenges for alternative fuel vehicle and 
transportation systems, (n.p), Delft University of Technology. 
 
Tsita K.G, Pilavachi PA, 2017. Decarbonizing the Greek road transport sector using alternative 
technologies and fuels, University of Western Macedonia, Greece.

Whitmarsh L., Wietschel M., (n.d) SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT VISIONS: WHAT ROLE FOR 
HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELL VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES? (n.p), Karlsruhe, Germany

Transport Systems

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